Seed-Links

In the agro-ecological maize web there are many groups and institutions campaigning for agroecology and trying to bring consumers and producers into closer contact. For example, International organisations such as La Via Campesina, the largest international peasant’s rights movement, strongly advocate for agro-ecology as the basis for peasant agriculture and food sovereignty and highlight its incompatibility with GM agriculture. On a more local scale, Spanish groups such as Ecologistas en Acción, Escola Agraria de Manresa or La Càtedra d’Agroecologia de la Universitat de Vic campaign and organise activities to raise awareness about the importance of agroecology. All of these groups conduct activities and actions at different points of the web to try and support the development and further uptake of agro-ecological practices and views.

In the certified organic maize web, there are many different groups and institutions that campaign to promote organic food and farming. For example, at the international level, organisations such as IFOAM and Greenpeace are leading advocates for certified organic food and farming at both the EU and international levels. At a national and on a more local scale, we also find institutions such as the CCPAE and CAAE, or groups such as SEAE that organise educational, cultural and political activities to promote organic food and farming.

In the chemically intensive maize web, there are different groups and institutions campaigning either to defend or fight against certain practices in the web. These are all attempts to try and shape or influence the web and its activities in particular ways. For example, at the international level, civil society groups, such as the Pesticide Action Network, want to minimise the negative effects from pesticide use so campaign to try and replace the use of harmful pesticides with ecologically sound alternatives. At the same time,  companies that produce and sell these pesticides, such as Syngenta (recently bought by ChemChina), Bayer (which recently acquired Monsanto) or BASF promote their products to farmers and agricultural extension officers and lobby governments and politicians to allow their continued use.

In Spain, no institutionally supported research is currently being done to better understand or develop heirloom maize varieties. In the past, several experimental fields have been carried out studying the performance of heirloom varieties to be used for bread making.

To Know More

[Academic Article] Maize for bread under organic agriculture

[Academic Article] Breeding maize for traditional and organic agriculture

In Spain, there is currently no institution investing exclusively in the research and development of organic maize varieties for commercial purposes. The public Research Institute on Agri-food Technologies (IRTA, in Spanish), however, has occasionally had an experimental field with organic varieties relating, for instance, to the benefit of crop rotations.

To Know More

[Academic Article] Maize for bread under organic agriculture

[Academic Article] Breeding maize for traditional and organic agriculture

[Website] El maíz en una rotación sostenible (in Spanish)

In Spain,  R&D on maize for production in chemically intensive maize webs is done by both public and private institutions (e.g.public research centres such as INTIA, IRTA or and private seed companies like Bayer, Fitó, LimaGrain and Pioneer). The focus of this work is often on plant breeding programs. Most of these programs are focused on testing the performance of high yielding hybrid varieties, developing new hybrids, or breeding varieties that are adapted to tough environmental conditions, such as drought. 

To Know More

[Interactive Website] Seed control: who holds the key to our food?

[Online Journal] Food Security at Stake. What the Bayer-Monsanto merger means for Europe

Since commercial agro-ecological production is rather marginal in Spain, there are no dedicated fields for seed production, beyond the work that seed banks do to make seeds available to growers and the work that farmers do to produce and save their own seed.

In Spain there are no organic seeds available at a commercial scale. Therefore, as the only available  alternative, organic farmers buy untreated seeds that have been produced in chemically intensive hybrid systems. This means that currently, the seeds that become organic maize in Spain come from a parental line produced in a chemically intensive manner rather than an organic one. The key difference being then that organic seeds receive no chemical seed treatments.

To Know More

[Website] Seed cooperative – a community owned organic seed company in the UK

In Spain, most commercial maize seeds are hybrid varieties (either with or without the inclusion of a GM event), which are typically characterised by high yields in the first generation but less stability and reliability over time. A hybrid means that two different parent plants were involved in the production of the kernels. Since maize is naturally an open-pollinating species, to create a hybrid requires specific actions to stop the plants from self-pollinating.

In order to produce hybrid seeds in large amounts, maize seed companies sow two varieties and then take actions to inhibit self-pollination and encourage cross-pollination. To do this it is necessary for the pollen produced in one plant’s tassel (the male part of the flower) to fertilize the silks (the female part of the flower) of plants from the other variety. To achieve this, plants that will serve as females must be separated from those that will perform the role as male plants. In practice, female and male role performing plants are separated into alternate rows in the field. The row of plants that will play the female role will then be detasseled before they can shed any pollen. Pollen then only flows from the rows of plants that serve as males. The seed from the detasseled plant is then harvested for use as hybrid seed. The process requires intensive manual labour, and on average it takes two people a whole day to detassel one hectare of maize.

How to produce hybrid seeds in mass (a photo-gallery)

To Know More

[Website] What’s the Difference? Open-Pollinated, Heirloom & Hybrid Seeds

Agro-ecological seeds are not commercialised in a large scale in Spain and they are not subject to treatment processes.

In certified organic production, chemical seed treatments are not permitted. This is because organic farming is committed to avoiding the use of toxic synthetic chemicals  and the negative impacts these can have on human health and the environment. In Spain, since there is a lack of commercially available organic seeds, as an alternative organic farmers buy untreated hybrid seeds produced under chemically intensive systems. This means that in certified organic maize farming in Spain, the seeds used are hybrid seeds produced by plants raised under chemically intensive systems but the seeds themselves are not chemically treated.

Farmers and farmer cooperatives working with maize seeds in chemically intensive agri-food webs can choose to use either chemically treated or untreated seeds.

In Spain there are very few farm cooperatives specifically for organic or agro-ecological farmers and the ones that exist are small and mostly oriented to vegetable production.

To Know More

[Press Article] La Sazón, una cooperativa de agricultura ecológica desde cuatro localidades del Alto Aragón (in Spanish)

[Doctoral Thesis] Ajates Gonzalez, R. (2016). Agricultural cooperatives: promoting or hindering fairer and more sustainable food systems? The case of Spain and the UK. (University of London)

In Spain there are very few farm cooperatives specifically for organic or agro-ecological farmers and the ones that exist are small and mostly oriented to vegetable production.

To Know More

[Press Article] La Sazón, una cooperativa de agricultura ecológica desde cuatro localidades del Alto Aragón (in Spanish)

[Doctoral Thesis] Ajates Gonzalez, R. (2016). Agricultural cooperatives: promoting or hindering fairer and more sustainable food systems? The case of Spain and the UK. (University of London)

The production of chemically intensive maize in Spain is generally integrated into grain cooperatives, many of them covering the entire production chain from farm to meat products. Under this system, the farmer resembles a wage-earning worker. Farmer cooperatives are at the heart of this system, as they sell the inputs (seeds, fertilizers, herbicides), lease the machinery to the farmers, and process and sell the grain. Often, these cooperatives grant credit loans to farmers during the season to cover the costs of inputs, which are then repaid upon harvest. The co-operative manager or technician also provides technical advice to the farmers, becoming a key actor for rural extension and for the introduction of new technologies at the farm level. The concentration of infrastructure within cooperatives, can make it difficult and expensive to separate GM from organic and chemically intensive grain at later stages of the production chain. In fact, only a small minority of the farm cooperatives restrict the use of GMOs in their facilities.

To Know More

[Doctoral Thesis] Ajates Gonzalez, R. (2016). Agricultural cooperatives: promoting or hindering fairer and more sustainable food systems? The case of Spain and the UK. (University of London)

In the agro-ecological web, the influence of the international stock market on maize prices is much lower due to the stronger focus this web has on self-production, local contexts and direct relations between producers and consumers within short supply chains. Agro-ecological farmers often produce for themselves and have little leftover to trade, or directly sell to consumers, and therefore the influence of the international stock market within this maize web is reduced and indeed, there is a specific aim within this system to minimize its power.

Interest in organic foods by consumers and marketers is growing steadily worldwide. The price of certified organic maize in Spain is typically double that of chemically intensive or GM maize. Organic pricing strategies can vary between farmers. Based on the global grain prices, some farmers quantify production costs and add a price margin to assure a reasonable profit margin. Others might adjust their price according to local market prices but most farmers will use a combination of both approaches. Pricing also can change depending on whether farmers are selling directly at a farmers market or to the processing industry.

Stock markets are extremely important arenas promoting, facilitating and shaping trade between buyers and sellers of raw materials. Prices for grain vary significantly through time based on the many combined actions of traders on the global food stock market. For maize in Spain, however, there is in general no significant price difference between chemically intensive and transgenic maize.

In Spain, no institutionally supported research is currently being done to better understand or develop heirloom maize varieties, and therefore there are also no field trials either.

In Spain, there are no specific field trials for certified organic seeds and varieties. This is linked to the fact that there is no specific R&D to develop new organic varieties and the organic seeds available for commercial production are actually produced by chemically intensive seed production systems.

In Spain, there are many actors and sites engaged in field trials of chemically intensive hybrid maize, both in the areas surrounding research centers and also in the fields of farmers paid to host the field trials.

Experimental fields in chemically intensive farms

↑ English subtitles available

Seed banks are a type of repository typically focused on supporting in-situ conservation of  biodiversity (i.e favouring conservation ‘in context’ or in this case ‘on farm’) and are interested in conserving the seed as a whole functional unit rather than placing specific emphasis on its genetic elements.

Seed banks obtain their seeds from farmers, store them in refrigerators (if available) and periodically reproduce new seeds together with farmers to replace the old ones and ensure the seed is always healthy and viable. They also usually gather and document knowledge associated with the seeds. For example, when prospecting for new seeds for the collections, seed bank workers often perform some ethnobotanical tasks to document cultural and ecological aspects, including things like culinary uses and agricultural practices. Seed banks can sell and/or freely distribute seeds directly to farmers or gardeners. They can also sell them through stores -or very often through online commerce- to the general public.

A conservation center for cultivated biodiversity

↑ English subtitles available

Despite international and European mandates on the need to protect agro-biodiversity, today seed banks in Spain face huge challenges. To make seeds from heirloom varieties legally available for commercial purposes, the seed variety has to be registered in an official catalogue and this requires proof of distinctness, uniformity and stability. Since obtaining registration for heirloom varieties through this process can be expensive and the appropriateness of the criteria used is actually disputed, the vast majority of heirloom varieties are not currently registered, thus living in a limbo of a-legality. This means some seed banks may sell without this official registration. In addition to this, there is not much interest in heirloom seeds from Spanish political institutions and therefore, there is not a lot of financial help available to maintain, research or register them.

An introduction to heirloom legislation

↑ English subtitles available

To Know More

[Magazine Article]: What makes a seed (truly) organic?

[Website]: Esporus Project (in Catalan)

[Website]: Les Rafardes Project

[Website]: Spanish Seed Network

In contrast with seed banks, gene banks are more directly focused on preserving genetic information and provide an ex-situ (or ‘off-site’) approach to conservation. In addition to holding collections of seeds they can also deal with other materials such as pollen, cells, tissues or other plant propagules.

Gene banks typically get samples from sending their own researchers on expeditions to rural areas or by donations from other gene banks. Once at gene banks, seeds are analyzed, documented (usually morphologically but sometimes also with cultural information gathered through oral transmission during collection), processed, and stored in refrigerators at different temperatures for their future use in breeding programs. Active collections (i.e those whose seeds are given to the petitioners) are kept at -4ºC while security collections (i.e duplicates from other collections) are kept at -18ºC). Periodically, the germinating power (or viability) of the seeds has to be determined and if viability is found to be less than 85%, the collection for that variety has to be regenerated through regrowth and a new round of seed harvesting.

In Spain there are several regional gene banks and also a national gene bank storing seeds from thousands of varieties of traditional crops. These Spanish gene banks distribute seeds to anyone who requests them: from both professional and amateur farmers (working in both organic or chemically intensive agriculture), to educational centers, companies, and any individual who asks for them. The Spanish national gene bank has more than 2000 samples of maize varieties. In theory, there are no GM seeds nor hybrids in the Spanish gene bank collections, but of course, traditional varieties from these banks can be used to develop new hybrid or GM seeds by biotech companies.

A Visit to the Spanish Center for Plant Resources 

↑ English subtitles available

To Know More

[Website]: Spanish Center of Plant Resources (in Spanish)

[Website]: CIMMYT (International Maize and Wheat Improvement Center)

In contrast with seed banks, gene banks are more directly focused on preserving genetic information and provide an ex-situ (or ‘off-site’) approach to conservation. In addition to holding collections of seeds, they can also deal with other materials such as pollen, cells, tissues or other plant propagules.

Gene banks typically get samples from sending their own researchers on expeditions to rural areas or through donations from other gene banks. Once at gene banks, seeds are analyzed, documented (usually for the physical and morphological features but sometimes also with cultural information gathered during collection), processed, and stored in refrigerators for their future use in breeding programs. Active collections (i.e those whose seeds are available to be distributed to others) are kept at -4ºC while security or backup collections (i.e duplicates from other collections) are kept at -18ºC. Periodically, the germinating power (or viability) of the seeds has to be determined and if viability is found to be less than 85%, the collection for that variety has to be regenerated through regrowth and a new round of seed harvesting.

In Spain there are several regional gene banks and also a national gene bank storing seeds from thousands of varieties of crops. These Spanish gene banks distribute seeds to anyone who requests them: including professional and amateur farmers (working in both organic or chemically intensive agriculture), educational centers, companies, and individuals. The Spanish national gene bank has more than 2000 samples of maize varieties. In theory, there are no modern hybrid seeds in the Spanish gene bank collections, but of course, traditional varieties from these banks can be accessed and used by researchers to develop new hybrids.

A Visit to the Spanish Center for Plant Resources 

↑ English subtitles available

To Know More

[Website]: Spanish Center of Plant Resources (in Spanish)

[Website]: CIMMYT (International Maize and Wheat Improvement Center)

Seed banks very often work with a network of farmers and growers for regeneration work. Thus, others are requested to grow a specific seed and variety and return some of the harvest back to the seed bank, and in this way help with the maintenance of the seed bank collections and agrobiodiversity conservation.

Since maize is a plant that can easily cross-pollinate with other varieties, it is important for seed savers to have regeneration fields as isolated from others as possible. This geographical isolation becomes the primary strategy to avoid genetic contamination from other maize plants (both GM and non-GM).

To know more

[Website] Esporus Project (in Catalan)

[Website] Les Rafardes Project

Gene banks typically regenerate their collections every 20-30 years, depending on the crop. In contrast with seed banks, gene banks often operate as a network with other gene banks and reproduction centers to regenerate their collections. Thus, other institutions may be requested to grow a specific seed or variety and return some of the harvested seed back to the gene bank. In this way, the network helps with the maintenance of the collections and agrobiodiversity conservation.

Since maize is a plant that can easily cross-pollinate with other varieties, it is important that regeneration fields are as isolated from others as possible. This geographical isolation becomes one of the main strategies to avoid genetic contamination from other maize plants (both GM and non-GM). Additionally, pollination is mostly done by hand which significantly diminishes the risk of cross-pollination.

The Process of Regenerating Maize Seeds

To know more

[Website] Miquel Agustí Foundation (in Spanish)

Gene banks typically regenerate their collections every 20-30 years, depending on the crop. In contrast with seed banks, gene banks often operate as a network with other gene banks and reproduction centers to regenerate their collections. Thus, other institutions may be requested to grow a specific seed or variety and return some of the harvested seed back to the gene bank. In this way, the network helps with the maintenance of the collections and agrobiodiversity conservation.

Since maize is a plant that can easily cross-pollinate with other varieties, it is important that regeneration fields are as isolated from others as possible. This geographical isolation becomes one of the main strategies to avoid genetic contamination from other maize plants (both GM and non-GM). Additionally, pollination is mostly done by hand which significantly diminishes the risk of cross-pollination.

The Process of Regenerating Maize Seeds

To know more

[Website] Miquel Agustí Foundation (in Spanish)

Small scale non-professional agro-ecological producers of maize in Spain often purchase their seeds from stores that are epicenters for food and non-professional agricultural goods and supplies in rural areas. In contrast, professional agro-ecological farmers may save and reuse seeds from their own harvests or obtain their seeds directly from seed banks or commercial seed projects.

Agricultural supply warehouses are large stores operated by companies specialised in selling agriculture-related supplies, including seeds or seedlings, fertilisers, pesticides, tools and machinery. They can also provide agricultural services, such as providing equipment for specific activities during the development of the crop (e.g machinery for sowing and harvesting, herbicide application etc.). They sell to both professional and non-professional farmers.

In Spain, organic farmers can buy untreated chemically intensive hybrid seeds from agricultural supply warehouses.  

Agricultural supply warehouses are large stores operated by companies specialised in selling agriculture-related supplies, including seeds or seedlings, fertilisers, pesticides, tools and machinery. They can also provide agricultural services, such as providing equipment for specific activities during the development of the crop (e.g machinery for sowing and harvesting, herbicide application etc.). They sell to both professional and non-professional farmers.

In Spain, both GM and hybrid seeds are commonly found in agricultural supply warehouses.

A Peek Into An Agricultural Supply Warehouse

Agro-ecological farmers merge traditional agricultural knowledge with modern agricultural science and aim to produce food that is both socially and ecologically sustainable. They are grounded in a philosophy that seeks to transcend a sole focus on yield and address a range of goals simultaneously. Such farms rely on ecological processes, biodiversity and cycles adapted to local conditions, rather than the use of external inputs. This is accomplished by using, where possible, agronomic, biological, and mechanical methods, as opposed to using synthetic materials, antibiotics, GMOs and growth hormones to fulfill any specific function within the system. However, they are focused on pursuing not only organic certification requirements but also in integrating social considerations such as fair supply chains for both producers and consumers, reconnecting production-consumption activities, and considering and managing the biological diversity of a field. Agro-ecological farmers pursue their practices as a way of life and as a sustainable way to develop rural societies (i.e by valuing traditional knowledge, strengthening social networks and revitalising local economies).

In Spain, agro-ecological farmers include not only small-scale farmers for commercial or subsistence purposes, but also some home gardeners, urban gardeners, organic agrarian schools, school garden project managers or housing communities. The seeds used on agro-ecological farms are often (but not always) heirloom or traditional Open Pollinated Varieties and sometimes these seeds are saved, exchanged and/or reused on the farm (e.g. for feeding chickens or for planting the next season). In fact, biological materials are often reused in agro-ecological webs, fostering the idea of a circular economy and helping to reduce costs and dependencies from external inputs. In Spain, when agro-ecological production is for commercial purposes and the maize therefore leaves the farm, it usually then follows the same path as the certified organic maize web.

Interviewing an Agro-ecological Farmer

↑ English subtitles available

To Know More

[Report] Agroecology: Key Concepts, Principles and Practices 

[Academic Article] Just Existing Is Resisting: The Everyday Struggle against the Expansion of GM Crops in Spain

Organic maize farms are modern farming systems that specifically strive for sustainability and are required to meet a range of internationally agreed standards for certification. Organic farming relies on ecological processes, biodiversity and cycles adapted to local conditions, rather than the use of external inputs. This is accomplished by using, where possible, agronomic, biological, and mechanical methods, as opposed to using synthetic inputs, antibiotics, GMOs and growth hormones to fulfill any specific function within the system.

While many certified organic farmers understand organic farming as something beyond input substitution and articulate wider political, environmental, ethical and philosophical reasons for pursuing this type of agri-food webs, there are others who regard the potential for increased profitability as the main motivation, which resembles the logic of chemically intensive agriculture. Due to this and the increasing orientation towards large-scale production for global markets, some people now talk about the ‘conventionalisation of organic farming’.

In Spain, while certified organic production is significantly on the rise in most crops, certified organic maize farms remain remarkably marginal, especially in the areas where GM maize is grown (i.e Aragon and Catalonia). For example, in 2015, organic maize production in Catalonia only covered 3% of the region’s demand. The threat of GM contamination, has triggered social conflict and generated hesitancy amongst farmers to cultivate organic maize.

Interviewing an Organic Farmer

↑ English subtitles available

To Know More

[Website] Organic Basics

[European Commission Website] Organic farming

[Academic Article] Just Existing Is Resisting: The Everyday Struggle against the Expansion of GM Crops in Spain

While chemically intensive maize farms – aka ‘conventional agriculture’ – started developing at the end of 19th century, they only spread worldwide after WWII with the Green Revolution. Typically, these farms are characterised by the use of synthetic chemical fertilizers, pesticides, herbicides or other continual inputs such as heavy irrigation. They are also  characterized by intensive tillage and concentrated monocultural production. These farms typically have a specific focus on productivity and high yields and due to their input based form of production, tend to be resource and energy intensive. Moreover, the use of synthetic chemicals and the expansion of monocultures has been criticized as having detrimental consequences for water, air, soils and biodiversity.

Currently the chemically intensive model of industrial agriculture based on large-scale monocultures has become the dominant agricultural model in terms of the percentage of cultivated land (although not necessarily in terms of the number of farms). This model has been given the contested name of ‘conventional’ agriculture.

In Spain, chemically intensive farms increased significantly during the 1960s as they were favoured by land concentration reforms and the modernisation and mechanisation of agriculture. Chemically intensive maize represents approximately 63.8% of maize farming in Spain. The grain from chemically intensive maize farming can go to both the production of animal feed and also to the production of food for human consumption. In the past, some farmers in Spain have, in fact, labeled chemically intensive maize as ‘maize for human consumption’ to distinguish it from GM maize.

Interviewing a Conventional Farmer

↑ English subtitles available

To Know More

[Press Article] Which EU countries consume the most pesticides?

[Podcast] Our Chemicalized World

[European Commission Website] EU – Pesticides database

[Academic Article] Just Existing Is Resisting: The Everyday Struggle against the Expansion of GM Crops in Spain

Maize produced within the agro-ecological web is also sometimes officially recognised as certified organic. In those cases, agro-ecological maize is mixed and dried and stored with organic maize, entering the certified organic agri-food web and becoming one of the ingredients of organic processed products.

In Spain, most drying facilities are integrated within farmer cooperatives or storage facilities. Facilities that specifically handle agro-ecological maize are very difficult to find. Due to the small amount of agro-ecological farmers, most dryer companies do not invest in preparing their facilities to specifically receive agro-ecological maize. This is a huge problem for agro-ecological farmers since it cannot be mixed with grain produced within the other webs and as all maize farmers, they need their maize to reach a specific level of humidity in order to sell it to processing companies. This means that these farmers either have to: a) travel further to find a dryer that handles organic maize (although this increases transport costs); b) try to reach low levels of humidity by leaving the crop in the field (although it is difficult to achieve the required levels of humidity and is highly dependent on climate conditions); c) in some contexts, hire a mobile dryer (although they are not widely available, are smaller and more expensive).

Insights about organic maize driers

To Know More

What a mobile maize drier looks like?

In Spain, most drying facilities are integrated within farmer cooperatives or storage facilities. Facilities that specifically handle certified organic maize are very difficult to find. Due to the small amount of organic farmers, most dryer companies do not invest in preparing their facilities to specifically receive agro-ecological or organic maize. This is a huge problem for organic farmers since it cannot be mixed with grain produced within the other webs and as all maize farmers, they need their maize to reach a specific level of humidity in order to sell it to processing companies. This means that these farmers either have to: a) travel further to find a dryer that handles organic maize (although this increases transport costs); b) try to reach low levels of humidity by leaving the crop in the field (although it is difficult to achieve the required levels of humidity and is highly dependent on climate conditions); c) in some contexts, hire a mobile dryer (although they are not widely available, are smaller and more expensive).

Insights about organic maize driers

To Know More

What a mobile maize drier looks like?

In Spain, many drying facilities are integrated within farmer cooperatives or storage facilities and often mix both chemically intensive and GM maize. There are, however, farmer cooperatives that choose to  specialize in producing, drying and storing non-GM chemically intensive maize and therefore, they need to be especially strict in separating their non-GM maize from any potential GM contamination.

What type of infrastructure is used to store maize?

To Know More:

[Blog] Gatekeepers of the maize web

[Blog] From a network of silos to international speculation

In Spain, most commercial agro-ecological maize goes directly from the storage facilities to animal feed processing companies to become organic animal feed. This organic animal feed is given to domestic animals in the course of organic animal husbandry. Many of these companies have technology integrated into their facilities that they use to grind maize in order to use it within their animal feed.

A peek into an organic animal feed processing plant

In Spain, most commercially produced organic maize goes directly from the storage facilities to the animal feed processing company to become organic animal feed. This organic animal feed is given to domestic animals in the course of organic animal husbandry. Many of these companies have technology integrated into their facilities that they can use to grind the maize in order to incorporate it into their animal feed.

Since in some areas of Spain local organic maize production only covers around  3% of the demand, it is generally imported from Ukraine, Italy or France for processing into further products. This increases costs for both processors and consumers, and the transport also generates negative environmental impacts (e.g. greenhouse gas emissions).

A peek into an organic animal feed processing plant

In Spain, a large portion of maize produced in the chemically intensive agri-food web is mixed with GM maize to produce animal feed. Therefore, the most common facilities processing maize produced in the chemically intensive web are owned by animal feed companies. The final product produced in these facilities is always labelled as GM feed since it is highly likely that 0.9% of the maize ingredients used are from GM maize. Other uses of maize produced in the chemically intensive food web are related to processed food products for human consumption (e.g. maize is used as a sweetener, a bulking agent, a preservative and a moistening agent in a wide range of food items) and industrial uses (such as the use of maize in the production of paper, glue, bioplastic, polyurethane, ethanol, cosmetics or pharmaceuticals).

In Spain, most commercial agro-ecological maize goes directly from storage facilities to organic animal feed production companies without passing through a mill or refinery. Any grinding and refining of commercialised agro-ecological maize therefore often takes place within the facilities of organic animal feed companies. The remaining small percentage of agro-ecological maize may be ground or crushed in an artisanal stone mill for speciality food items. These artisanal maize mills are now scarce and are maintained by a minority of millers who work to keep this tradition alive. Being a traditional maize miller is often not a fulltime professional activity, but rather a complementary part time job. Often these millers are also farmers who plant, dry and grind traditional heirloom varieties of maize.

Visiting a traditional mill

↑ English subtitles available

In Spain, most certified organic maize goes directly from storage facilities to organic animal feed production companies without passing through a mill or refinery. The grinding and refining of commercialised organic maize therefore often takes place within the facilities of organic animal feed companies.

In Spain, most chemically intensive maize is mixed with GM maize to produce animal feed without passing through an independent mill or refinery. The grinding and refining of this mixed maize therefore often takes place within the facilities of animal feed companies. There are, however, some independent modern mills that deal with non-GM chemically intensive maize destined for direct human consumption. These mills transform the grain of maize into flour, semolina, or starch.

Organic livestock farming involves a diversity of practices in animal breeding, feeding, housing, health & wellbeing, management and processing so as to be compatible with the principles and practices of organic farming systems. This means that farmed animals are raised over longer periods of time than in the chemically intensive system, they are fed with organic animal feed, they receive less medications and antibiotics and they have more space to live. Animal feed in organic livestock farming must also be GM free and monitoring controls take place to ensure this.

Most commercially produced agro-ecological maize in Spain is mixed with certified organic maize and used for producing certified organic feed for various types of livestock farming, including poultry, cattle, goats and pig farms. Although pig farming is a remarkably significant activity taking place in maize producing areas, there are actually very few organic pig farms due to the high economic investment needed, the intensive management that these farms require and the limited culture for the consumption of organic products in the country.

Visiting one of the few organic pig farms in Catalonia

Organic livestock farming involves a diversity of practices in animal breeding, feeding, housing, health & wellbeing, management and processing so as to be compatible with the principles and practices of organic farming systems. This means that farmed animals are raised over longer periods of time than in the chemically intensive system, they are fed with organic animal feed, they receive less medications and antibiotics and they have more space to live. Animal feed in organic livestock farming must also be GM free and monitoring controls take place to ensure this.

Most commercially produced certified organic maize in Spain is used for producing certified organic feed for various types of livestock farming, including poultry, cattle, goats and pig farms. Although pig farming is a remarkably significant activity taking place in maize producing areas, there are actually very few organic pig farms due to the high economic investment needed, the intensive management that these farms require and the limited culture for the consumption of organic products in the country.

Visiting one of the few organic pig farms in Catalonia

A large part of maize produced in the chemically intensive food web in Spain is used to produce feed for all types of livestock farming, including poultry, cattle, goats and pigs. Since chemically intensive maize used to produce animal feed is mixed with GM maize, the feed used on these farms always has a label indicating that it contains GM ingredients.

In the primary maize production areas of Spain, pig farming is also a significant agricultural activity. The dominant model characterising pig farming in Spain is the so-called ‘integration model’. In this model, large companies engaged in different parts of the production chain (e.g. growing raw materials, manufacturing, transporting, marketing, and/or retailing) work to integrate (and own/control) all the different components. This means these companies pay livestock farmers to raise the animals from their infancy to the time they are taken to the slaughterhouse. In fact, these companies not only pay for the space and the farmer’s work hours but also for the animals, their feed and any medications. As a result of this investment, they are the ones who take the managerial decisions concerning the animals’ welfare and living conditions and the farmer is paid to manage the process.

Visiting an ‘integrated’ pig farm

In Spain, there are very few specialised slaughterhouse facilities for organic meat. This means that most of the animals raised on organic livestock farms are slaughtered in and processed in the same facilities as those of chemically intensive and GM systems. However, in order to guarantee organic traceability, very often the slaughterhouse dedicates a certain day of the week for organic-raised animals to be slaughtered. On that day, these animals will go first, and after all the organic-raised animals are slaughtered, then the slaughterhouse continues with those linked to the chemically intensive or GM webs.

In Spain, there are very few specialised slaughterhouse facilities for organic meat. This means that most of the animals raised on organic livestock farms are slaughtered in and processed in the same facilities as those of chemically intensive and GM systems. However, in order to guarantee organic traceability, very often the slaughterhouse dedicates a certain day of the week for organic-raised animals to be slaughtered. On that day, these animals will go first, and after all the organic-raised animals are slaughtered, then the slaughterhouse continues with those linked to the chemically intensive or GM webs.

In Spain, a total number of 63.743.419 cows, sheep, goats, pigs, horses, poultry and rabbits were officially slaughtered in 2016, mostly fed with a mix of chemically intensive and GM crops.

Commercial products made with agro-ecological maize are  difficult to find in Spain but there is an increasingly wide range of commercialisation channels for agro-ecological production. Some agro-ecological products can be certified as organic and end up in specialised organic shops or restaurants, and a large percentage may be sold on the farms themselves, in farmers markets, county fairs or organic food cooperatives. Agro-ecological products, however, are unlikely to be sold in large supermarkets.

Certified organic products related to organic maize (such as organic meat, cheese, eggs, yogurt, processed food, etc.) are not easy to find in Spain. However, they can increasingly be found in locations such as large supermarkets (although with very few options), dedicated organic supermarkets, specialised stores, farmer’s markets, food cooperatives and even some restaurants and schools with organic catering.

Chemically intensive maize is found in a wide variety of products. A large portion of it will be mixed with GM maize for animal feed production, but another part will be used in items for human consumption (e.g as a sweetener in all sorts of processed foods), or industrial purposes (e.g. for the pharmaceutical industry, the agrofuel industry or the cardboard industry). Maize produced in chemically intensive agri-food webs is most commonly found in processed food products in supermarkets, food stores, schools and restaurants.

In agro-ecological webs, there is a strong commitment to shorten supply chains, localise agri-food webs and enhance food sovereignty. This is with an aim of a) reducing food miles and increasing energy efficiency, b) eliminating synthetic chemical inputs, c) bringing closer and fostering a sense of community between producer, consumers and relevant intermediaries, and d) facilitating a fair exchange between producers and consumers).

In the context of globalisation, certified organic production has often adopted an agribusiness model (similar to those typically used in chemically intensive and GM webs) focused on large-scale production for economic profit and efficiency within international trade markets. This can also reinforce the use of the same type of channels for commercialization (e.g. supermarkets and chain stores owned by multinational companies) rather than the pursuit of shorter supply chains and alternative local avenues for sale. This means that there are shades of grey between the different systems in which similarities arise, e.g. due to a shared global context.

Currently, most maize within the chemically intensive web is produced on a large scale and specifically oriented towards international trade. This means that the activities, processes and people involved in the maize web, from the development of the seeds to the consumption of the final product, operate on a global scale across a wide range of countries, cultures and environments. For example, maize seed may be produced in one country, treated in another, grown in a third and sold to a fourth. The chemical inputs used on the farm may be developed and owned by a multinational company and produced and shipped from various places around the world. Processing companies may buy maize from a range of countries and process it into food and industrial items for trade on global markets. Within the chemically intensive maize web, this globalization of food production and products is embraced and actively engaged in.